About

Sarah Ho is the CVM Director of Student Engagement at the College of Veterinary Medicine at NC State University. Her role involves fostering student development and engagement within the college community. The page highlights her position and contact information but does not provide specific details about her research focus, background, or key contributions.

Research topics

• Chemistry
• Medicine
• Biomedical engineering
• Materials science
• Biology
• Physics
• Optics
• Composite material
• Nuclear engineering
• Cardiology
• Biophysics
• Thermodynamics
• Internal medicine
• Biochemistry
• Nuclear medicine
• Chromatography
• Surgery

Selected publications

• Production of Large Ellipsoidal Ablations Using Integrated Nanosecond Pulse Irreversible Electroporation Administered Via a Single Applicator and Grounding Pad

  Journal of Vascular and Interventional Radiology · 2026-05-01

  article1st authorCorresponding
  PublisherDOI

• Abstract No. 336 Using Voltage to Control Ablation Size in Integrated Nanosecond Pulse Irreversible Electroporation (INSPIRE) Treatments

  Journal of Vascular and Interventional Radiology · 2026-03-23

  articleOpen accessSenior author
  PublisherOA PDFDOI

• Altering Charge-Balance via Patterned Bipolar Pulses for Successful Gene Electrotransfer

  Annals of Biomedical Engineering · 2026-04-08

  articleOpen accessSenior author

  PURPOSE: To determine if GET via charge-balanced patterned bipolar microsecond pulses could be improved, novel bursts of patterned bipolar microsecond pulsed electric fields were investigated in a cuvette and 3D tissue model to evaluate gene electrotransfer (GET) in vitro. METHODS: Various charge-balancing strategies were implemented to create bipolar microsecond waveforms. A cuvette model was used to identify optimal electric field intensities and plasmid concentrations for each protocol before cotransfection of two plasmids was evaluated in a cuvette and a 3D tissue model for a subset of best-performing protocols. RESULTS: The 2-1-1 unbalanced, 1-1-0.5 unbalanced, and 2-1-1 burst-balanced protocols were the top bipolar microsecond protocols tested on HEK 293 cells and achieved GET efficiencies comparable to the top-performing 8x100μs conventional GET protocol. Of the patterned bipolar pulses, the highest performing was 2-1-1 Unbalanced at 1000 V/cm with a dose of 5 ms, a delivery rate of 200 μs/s, and a plasmid concentration of 1250 µg/mL. C28 chondrocytes were also tested via the cuvette model with 2-1-1 burst-balanced exceeding even the top-performing 8x100μs conventional protocol in GET efficiency. CONCLUSION: Patterned bipolar microsecond GET tested in this study has similar transfection capabilities as conventional GET settings while maintaining viability and requiring lower plasmid concentration for similar results. The novel patterned waveforms tested potentially enhance electrophoretic effects, reducing the need for high plasmid concentrations in vivo. These waveforms were developed based on < 2 μs bipolar pulses (H-FIRE and INSPIRE) which have been shown to reduce muscle stimulations in vivo.

  PublisherOA PDFDOI

• Integrated Nanosecond Pulse Irreversible Electroporation (INSPIRE): Impact of Exposed Electrode Length on Ablation Geometry in an In Vivo Liver Model

  Cancers · 2025-09-02 · 1 citations

  articleOpen accessSenior authorCorresponding

  Objectives: There is a critical need for effective focal therapies for patients with inoperable or anatomically complex tumors where conventional ablation techniques pose high risk or are ineffective. Integrated Nanosecond Pulsed Irreversible Electroporation (INSPIRE) is a novel non-thermal ablation modality which uses real time temperature feedback during pulse delivery to safely treat tumors near critical structures. This study evaluated the impact of exposed electrode length on ablation zone size, reproducibility, and cardiac safety in a large animal model. Methods: INSPIRE treatments were performed in an in vivo healthy porcine liver model. All treatments administered 6000 V 1000 ns pulses with a 45 °C temperature set point. Treatments were administered percutaneously via an electrode and grounding pad approach using an internally cooled electrode applicator. The exposed electrode region at the distal end of the applicator was set to either 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, or 2.0 cm. Ablation zones were assessed via ultrasound, contrast-enhanced CT, and gross pathology one week post-treatment. Cardiac safety was evaluated by measuring pre- and post-treatment serum Troponin levels. Results: All treatments were completed without adverse events. Troponin levels remained stable (pre: 0.249 ng/mL; post: 0.224 ng/mL), indicating no measurable cardiac injury. The 1.5 cm exposure length produced the largest and most consistent ablation volumes, with a mean volume of 12.8 ± 2.6 cm3 and average dimensions of 3.7 × 2.7 cm in under 6 min. Increasing exposure length beyond 1.5 cm introduced greater variability and reduced treatment volumes. Conclusions: INSPIRE enables safe, large-volume, single-applicator ablation without a need for electrical pulse synchronization with R wave in cardiac rhythm. The 1.5 cm exposure length offers optimal balance between energy delivery and treatment consistency. These findings support further clinical investigation of INSPIRE for non-thermal ablation of inoperable tumors.

  PublisherOA PDFDOI

• Impact of Voltage on the Production on Spherical Ablations for Integrated Time Nanosecond Pulse Irreversible Electroporation

  Bioelectricity · 2025-09-22 · 1 citations

  articleOpen accessSenior author

  Objective: To study the safety and reproducibility of high-voltage integrated nanosecond pulse irreversible electroporation (INSPIRE) administered through a single applicator and grounding pad approach in a healthy liver model. Methods: A percutaneous approach to the liver was made under ultrasound guidance in female pigs weighing between 25 and 35 kg. INSPIRE treatments at 3000 V, 4500 V, and 6000 V using 1000 ns or 2000 ns waveforms, with a 0.02 s dose and a 45°C temperature set point were delivered using an actively cooled single applicator and distal grounding pad. Ablation size, muscle stimulation, and cardiac safety were evaluated. Results: All INSPIRE treatments were completed successfully without cardiac synchronization or break-through muscle stimulation. Ablations were visible on ultrasound shortly after treatments were complete. Treatments were completed within approximately 2-8 minutes. The largest ablations, achieved with the 2000 ns waveform at 6000 V, measured 4.4 ± 0.7 cm by 2.9 ± 0.1 cm. Conclusion: INSPIRE can be safely used to achieve significantly larger ablations significantly faster than current irreversible electroporation (IRE) technologies using a simplified single-applicator and grounding pad approach. Significance: INSPIRE overcomes technical and procedural challenges facing IRE including ablation size limitations, muscle stimulation, the need for cardiac synchronization, long procedure times, and the lack of visualization during procedures.

  PublisherOA PDFDOI

• Dose Is a Critical Factor Affecting Treatment Volumes for Integrated Nanosecond Pulse Irreversible Electroporation (INSPIRE)

  IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering · 2025-08-08 · 2 citations

  articleOpen access1st authorCorresponding

  OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of electrical dose on in vivo INSPIRE treatments which administer high voltage ultrashort alternating polarity electrical pulses with active temperature control. METHODS: INSPIRE was administered to healthy swine liver in vivo via a percutaneous single applicator and grounding pad approach. Using 45 °C temperature control, 6000 V waveforms consisting of 750 ns, 1000 ns, or 2000 ns bipolar pulses were administered to examine the effect of pulses approximately shorter than, equal to, and longer than the cell membrane charging time. Treatment volumes were assessed one week post treatment via computed tomography and cardiac safety was assessed via serum troponin analysis. RESULTS: (9.7 minutes, 3.9 × 2.5 cm) for 0.04 s doses. No significant changes in troponin levels were found. CONCLUSION: This study demonstrated the in vivo safety of high voltage INSPIRE treatments without cardiac synchronization. There is a strong dose dependent effect on treatment volumes. Optimal treatment efficiency was found for treatment doses between 0.01 and 0.02 s with treatment times between 2-4 minutes. SIGNIFICANCE: Single applicator INSPIRE treatments significantly simplify treatment planning and clinical implementation versus traditional two to six applicator approaches. This study demonstrates that INSPIRE protocols can rapidly produce large spherical treatment zones while reducing treatment times by an order of magnitude compared to existing electroporation approaches.

  PublisherOA PDFDOI

• High-Throughput Capable Three-Dimensional Tissue Model for Quantification of Electroporation Thresholds

  Journal of Visualized Experiments · 2025-08-19 · 1 citations

  articleSenior author

  Electroporation is a promising technology utilizing electrical pulses for macromolecule delivery and soft-tissue ablation, with applications that include next-generation prophylactics and the treatment of genetic diseases such as cancer. This study demonstrates a high-throughput capable 3D tissue culture model for quantification of the reversible and irreversible electroporation thresholds for a given electroporation protocol. By using a non-uniform electric field and analyzing the spatial distribution of transfected cells, both reversible and irreversible thresholds can be identified within a single sample, increasing the efficiency at which electroporation protocols can be characterized, especially for in vivo translation. To show this capability, 3D tissue mimics containing HEK293 cells were transfected using a ring and pin electrode to deliver a GFP-encoding plasmid. Electroporation thresholds were then derived based on fluorescent microscopy images of the transfected samples. This model demonstrates potential for use as a means for high-throughput evaluation of electroporation protocols, a key advantage over current methods to evaluate these thresholds, which tend to be time-intensive and are less representative of in vivo conditions.

  PublisherDOI

• Optimization of Bipolar Microsecond Electric Pulses for DNA Vaccine Delivery

  IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering · 2025-03-04 · 1 citations

  articleSenior author

  OBJECTIVE: Bipolar microsecond and sub-microsecond pulsed electric fields have several advantages over longer duration monopolar pulses including significant reductions in muscle stimulation and perceived pain enabling their use in several novel clinical applications. In this study, treatment parameters were optimized to enhance DNA uptake in a 3D tissue model. METHODS: 3D tissue models were subjected to microsecond pulsed electric field treatments with various waveforms, doses, and delivery rates. Small molecule uptake and viability were evaluated in search of optimal outcomes. Computational models were then used to derive reversible and lethal thresholds for each treatment group. DNA transfection was then evaluated for a subset of optimal parameters and compared to traditional electroporation protocols. RESULTS: A 2-1-2 waveform with a 1 ms dose delivered at a rate of 100 μs/s resulted in the highest number of transfected cells yielding a 7730% increase over traditional monopolar pulse protocols. CONCLUSION: Bipolar microsecond pulses offer substantial promise for DNA delivery via reversible electroporation. SIGNIFICANCE: Several gene-related therapeutics such as DNA vaccines are currently hindered by poor cellular uptake. This crucial barrier to a new generation of such therapies can be overcome by improving DNA delivery as demonstrated in this work.

  PublisherDOI

• Treatment of Spontaneous Tumors With Algorithmically Controlled Electroporation

  IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering · 2024-04-29 · 6 citations

  articleOpen accessSenior author

  OBJECTIVE: To study the safety and efficacy of algorithmically controlled electroporation (ACE) against spontaneous equine melanoma. METHODS: A custom temperature sensing coaxial electrode was paired with a high voltage pulse generation system with integrated temperature feedback controls. Computational modeling and ex vivo studies were conducted to evaluate the system's ability to achieve and maintain target temperatures. Twenty-five equine melanoma tumors were treated with a 2000 V protocol consisting of a 2-5-2 waveform, 45 °C temperature set point, and integrated energized times of 0.005 s, 0.01 s, or 0.02 s (2500x, 5000x, and 10000x 2 μs pulses, respectively). Patients returned 20-50 days post treatment to determine the efficacy of the treatment. RESULTS: ACE temperature control algorithms successfully achieved and maintained target temperatures in a diverse population of spontaneous tumors with significant variation in tissue impedance. All treatments were completed successfully without and without adverse events. Complete response rates greater than 93% were achieved in all treatment groups. CONCLUSION: ACE is a safe and effective treatment for spontaneous equine melanoma. The temperature control algorithm enabled rapid delivery of electroporation treatments without prior knowledge of tissue electrical or thermal properties and could adjust to real time changes in tissue properties. SIGNIFICANCE: Real time temperature control in electroporation procedures enables treatments near critical structures where thermal damage is contraindicated. Unlike standard approaches, ACE protocols do not require extensive pretreatment planning or knowledge of tissue properties to determine an optimal energy delivery rate and they can account for changes in tissue state (e.g., perfusion) in real time to simultaneously minimize treatment time and potential for thermal damage.

  PublisherOA PDFDOI

• Investigation of integrated time nanosecond pulse irreversible electroporation against spontaneous equine melanoma

  Frontiers in Veterinary Science · 2024-01-30 · 8 citations

  articleOpen accessSenior authorCorresponding

  Introduction Integrated time nanosecond pulse irreversible electroporation (INSPIRE) is a novel tumor ablation modality that employs high voltage, alternating polarity waveforms to induce cell death in a well-defined volume while sparing the underlying tissue. This study aimed to demonstrate the in vivo efficacy of INSPIRE against spontaneous melanoma in standing, awake horses. Methods A custom applicator and a pulse generation system were utilized in a pilot study to treat horses presenting with spontaneous melanoma. INSPIRE treatments were administered to 32 tumors across 6 horses and an additional 13 tumors were followed to act as untreated controls. Tumors were tracked over a 43–85 day period following a single INSPIRE treatment. Pulse widths of 500ns and 2000ns with voltages between 1000 V and 2000 V were investigated to determine the effect of these variables on treatment outcomes. Results Treatments administered at the lowest voltage (1000 V) reduced tumor volumes by 11 to 15%. Higher voltage (2000 V) treatments reduced tumor volumes by 84 to 88% and eliminated 33% and 80% of tumors when 500 ns and 2000 ns pulses were administered, respectively. Discussion Promising results were achieved without the use of chemotherapeutics, the use of general anesthesia, or the need for surgical resection in regions which are challenging to keep sterile. This novel therapeutic approach has the potential to expand the role of pulsed electric fields in veterinary patients, especially when general anesthesia is contraindicated, and warrants future studies to demonstrate the efficacy of INSPIRE as a solid tumor treatment.

  PublisherOA PDFDOI

Recent grants

• Targeted electric field therapy for malignant infiltrative glioma

  NIH · $386k · 2015–2018

• STTR Phase I: An Endoscopic-Based INSPIRE Platform for Treating and Monitoring Unresectable Pancreatic Cancer

  NSF · $225k · 2014–2014

Frequent coauthors

• Rafael V. Davalos

  The Wallace H. Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering

  62 shared

• Lei Xing

  Xiamen University

  27 shared

• Richard E. Fan

  Stanford University

  15 shared

• Christopher C. Fesmire

  North Carolina State University

  13 shared

• John L. Caldwell

  Virginia Tech

  13 shared

• Ross A. Petrella

  UNC/NCSU Joint Department of Biomedical Engineering

  12 shared

• Erin A. Henslee

  American Society For Engineering Education

  11 shared

• Alireza Salmanzadeh

  University of California, Berkeley

  10 shared

Labs

• CVM Molecular Biomedical SciencesPI

Education

• Postdoctoral Fellow, School of Medicine

  Stanford University

  2017

• Ph.D., School of Biomedical Engineering and Sciences

  Virginia Tech - Wake Forest University

  2012

• M.S,, Engineering Mechanics

  Virginia Tech

  2010

• B.S., Electrical Engineering

  SUNY University at Buffalo

  2007

• B.A., Mathematics

  SUNY University at Buffalo

  2007