About

Doris Zahner is an Adjunct Associate Professor at Teachers College, Columbia University. She holds a Ph.D. in Cognitive Studies in Education, an M.S. in Applied Statistics, an M.A. in Cognitive Studies in Education, and a B.S. in Psychology, all from Teachers College, Columbia University and Cornell University. Her research focuses on assessment and measurement in education, including critical thinking skills, performance-based assessments, and international testing of higher education outcomes. Zahner has contributed to the development and evaluation of standardized testing procedures, addressing issues such as test bias, scoring comparability, and standard setting. She has authored numerous publications on these topics, emphasizing the importance of valid and reliable assessment methods in educational research and practice.

Research topics

• Computer Science
• Mathematics education
• Pedagogy
• Medical education
• Medicine
• Psychology
• Political Science
• Sociology
• Geography
• Multimedia
• Human–computer interaction

Selected publications

• Measuring and Improving University Students’ Critical Thinking Skills through Assessment and Instruction

  DIDAC · 2025-12-30

  articleOpen access1st authorCorresponding

  This paper presents a mixed-methods design study that examines the development of higher education students’ critical thinking skills using performance-based assessment and embedded instruction. Conducted at a large public university in the United States, the study includes quantitative analyses of critical thinking skills assessment scores, survey responses, and a qualitative autoethnographic reflection from a faculty member. Results show that students who received deliberate instruction in critical thinking had significantly higher assessment scores and found these skills to be more important for their academic and future career outcomes than those students who did not. Additionally, the instructor’s reflection highlighted the pedagogical challenges and professional growth associated with integrating a critical thinking skills framework into his course. Embedding critical thinking skills instruction and performance-based assessments into a course is an effective strategy for developing and improving students’ skills.

  PublisherOA PDFDOI

• Investigating learning gains of critical thinking and communication skills among Finnish and American higher education students

  Journal of Applied Research in Higher Education · 2025-10-21

  article1st authorCorresponding

  Purpose The study focuses on the differences in learning gains of higher-order skills such as critical thinking and communication of entering and exiting higher education students in Finland and the US, whether there are background variables that explain the possible difference in these skills between these two countries, and implication for transition from higher education into the workforce. Design/methodology/approach The data used in this study consist of 29,187 entering and 22,109 exiting American students, and 1,524 entering and 860 exiting Finnish students. The data were analyzed with descriptive statistics and two-level regression models. Findings The results show that exiting students significantly outperformed entering students, but the overall learning gains were greater for the American students. Entering Finnish students, however, had a higher average score than their American counterparts. Background variables do not explain the observed differences. Research limitations/implications One of the limitations of this study is that the model for assessing student learning gains at almost all participating higher education institutions (HEIs) is to compare entering and exiting students. Our data set do not contain any third-year students in the US as it does in Finland. Practical implications The result of this study can help HEIs implement curricular support or resources to improve with students' critical thinking and communication skills, both of which have been shown to be predictive of academic, post-graduation and workplace success. Originality/value The value of these findings is that they support and can be used to highlight the importance of critical thinking and communication skills for both academic and workplace success.

  PublisherDOI

• Assessing and developing critical‐thinking skills in higher education

  European Journal of Education · 2023 · 28 citations

  • Sociology
  • Political Science
  • Psychology

  Abstract Generic skills such as critical thinking, problem solving, and communication are essential for students' success in higher education and their careers. This article presents findings from an international study of students' ( n ≈ 120,000) generic skills from six countries using a performance‐based assessment. Results indicate that higher education students, on average, gain generic skills between entry and exit. However, learning gain is less marked than could be expected and varies significantly among country samples. Various background variables such as gender, ethnicity, parental level of education, and primary language are also explored. The authors conclude that it is feasible to reliably and validly measure generic skills in a cross‐cultural context and that assessment of these skills is an essential component of best practices in higher education.

  PublisherOA PDFDOI

• Measuring and Improving Higher Education Students' Critical-Thinking and Written Communication Skills

  2023-01-01 · 1 citations

  article1st authorCorresponding
  PublisherDOI

• CLA+ in the United States

  OECD eBooks · 2022-08-24

  book-chapter1st authorCorresponding

  Part III of this report discusses the assessment in each of the six participating countries. Each chapter reviews policy context, test administration, mastery levels, score distribution and data regarding effort and engagement. This chapter discusses the CLA+ assessment in the United States, where it has a long history and has acquired strong status and recognition.

  PublisherDOI

• Predictive validity of CLA+

  OECD eBooks · 2022-08-24 · 1 citations

  book-chapter1st authorCorresponding

  The research results presented in this chapter are from two studies using a longitudinal data set that examined the validity of CLA+ as a predictor of post-higher education outcomes for students transitioning from higher education to career. CLA+ data from students who graduated in 2014 and 2017 and survey results from their employers and advisors help answer questions about the importance of these skills in post-higher education and whether they can be predicted by CLA+ test scores.

  PublisherDOI

• Assessing Students' Differential Performance of Critical Thinking and Written Communication Skills Across Fields of Study

  Proceedings of the 2022 AERA Annual Meeting · 2022-01-01

  article1st authorCorresponding
  PublisherDOI

• The Collegiate Learning Assessment – a performance-based assessment of generic skills

  OECD eBooks · 2022-08-24

  book-chapter1st authorCorresponding

  Educators and employers clearly recognise that fact-based knowledge is no longer sufficient and that critical thinking, problem solving, and written communication skills are essential for success. The opportunity to improve students’ essential skills lies in identification and action. Assessments that provide educators with the opportunity to help students identify their strengths as well as areas where they can improve are fundamental to developing the critical thinkers, problem solvers and communicators who will be essential in the future. With close and careful attention paid toward students’ essential skills, even a small increase in the development of these skills could boost future outcomes for students, parents, institutions and the overall economy.

  PublisherDOI

• Ensuring cross-cultural reliability and validity

  OECD eBooks · 2022-08-24

  book-chapter1st authorCorresponding

  The purpose of this chapter is to present a reliability and validity case study investigating the scoring of the Collegiate Learning Assessment (CLA+) of higher education students in Finland as well as the United States. This study contributes to the overall literature on establishing equivalency for an international assessment of students’ critical thinking and written communication skills. Two prior studies, similar in nature, both found that results from a translated and adapted performance-based assessment are comparable (">Zahner‬ and Steedle, 2014[1]; Zahner and Ciolfi, 2018[2])‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬. This chapter presents a third case using CLA+ across two languages and cultures.

  PublisherDOI

• CLA+ International

  OECD eBooks · 2022-08-24

  book-chapter1st authorCorresponding

  This chapter explores the Memorandum of Understanding executed by the Council for Aid to Education (CAE) and the OECD in order for both organisations to continue collaborating on assessing higher education students’ generic skills.

  PublisherDOI

Frequent coauthors

• James E. Corter

  12 shared

• Barbara Tversky

  Stanford University

  9 shared

• Jeffrey V. Nickerson

  9 shared

• Yun Jin Rho

  Pearson (United States)

  5 shared

• Raffaela Wolf

  4 shared

• Kelly Rotholz

  Council for Aid to Education

  4 shared

• Olivia Cortellini

  3 shared

• Jonathan Lehrfeld

  Educational Testing Service

  3 shared

Education

• Ph.D., Cognitive Studies in Education

  Teachers College, Columbia University

  2005

• M.S., Applied Statistics

  Teachers College, Columbia University

  2002

• M.A., Cognitive Studies in Education

  Teachers College, Columbia University

  2000

• B.S., Psychology

  Cornell University

  1998

Awards & honors

• CLA+ Standard setting study final report
• CWRA+ standard setting study final report
• The case for critical-thinking skills and performance assess…
• CCSSV Report
• A case study of an international performance-based assessmen…