Catching the drift: EEG microstate dynamics resemble time-on-task changes in mind wandering and sustained attention

Cognitive Neuroscience · 2026-05-24

Sustained focus is essential for effective goal-directed behavior. Yet, as sustained attention tasks drag on, the occurrence of mind wandering increases. Recent studies suggest that such increases in mind wandering correspond with increases in response time variability and declines in accuracy with greater time-on-task. Relatively little is known about how large-scale brain dynamics unfold over similar timescales. EEG microstates offer a way to characterize these dynamics by capturing brief, quasi-stable topographical patterns that index distinct large-scale neural configurations. Prior work has shown that microstate C corresponds with episodes of mind wandering, whereas microstate E corresponds with task-focused periods. The present study asked whether the prominence of these microstates may systematically shift with greater time-on-task. Thirty-four adults completed a 45-min Sustained Attention to Response Task, while EEG was recorded and canonical microstates were extracted. In line with established behavioral findings, self-reported mind wandering and performance indices suggested poorer task-focus with longer time-on-task. Critically, microstate metrics revealed a gradual increase in the prominence of microstate C (greater time coverage and occurrence) over the course of the task and a corresponding decrease in the prominence of microstate E (shorter duration). These results indicate that EEG microstate dynamics are sensitive to time-on-task related changes in sustained attention and track a shift from externally oriented task focus toward internally oriented, mind wandering states.

The dynamics of EEG microstates covary with spontaneous thoughts

Cortex · 2026-01-24 · 2 citations

Brain activity continuously fluctuates alongside the spontaneously co-occurring mental events that comprise our spontaneous thought. Understanding the functional relevance of this intrinsic activity requires investigation of the covariation between ongoing brain dynamics and spontaneous thought. The large-scale electrophysiological events known as electroencephalographic (EEG) microstates provide an important window into the activity of neuronal networks at the millisecond time scale, and sequences of microstates are thought to reflect cognitively relevant mental operations. Yet, attempts to link momentary thoughts to the dynamics of microstates through more temporally precise experience sampling methods have been limited. We address this gap by asking participants to report on the content and quality of their spontaneous thought across nine experiential dimensions by answering questions adapted from the Amsterdam Resting-State Questionnaire (ARSQ) after eight separate EEG recording periods where participants engaged in eyes-closed rest. We found that individuals' retrospective reports of the flow of their thought content varied substantially from one moment to the next and were coupled with the dynamics of microstates. In particular, microstates C and E demonstrate associations with several prominent features of spontaneous thought, providing links between these electrophysiological events and large-scale functional brain networks thought to be involved in internal cognition and self-generated mental processes. Together, these findings elucidate the functional relevance of microstates by linking their dynamics to distinct dimensions of spontaneous thought and demonstrate the utility of more temporally precise experience sampling approaches to capture thoughts in individuals at rest.

Evaluating Mindfulness Training as a Cognitive Performance Enhancement Tool: Insights from Two Pragmatic Cluster-Randomized Trials in an Elite Military Educational Setting

Mindfulness · 2026-04-01

Abstract Objectives Special Operations Forces (SOF) must maintain cognitive and operational performance under extreme conditions. This pragmatic trial aimed to assess whether integrating a mindfulness training (MT) program into SOF Professional Military Education (PME) through a train-the-trainer approach could enhance these critical capabilities. Method Using a cluster-randomized design, groups were assigned to MT or training-as-usual (TAU). After a 10-week trainer practicum, trainers delivered a 4-week, 6-hr variant of a validated 8-hr MT program in person across two PME courses (Rounds 1 and 2). In Round 1 ( n = 122), MT was implemented at the start of the course, with out-of-class mindfulness practice delivered via a web app. In Round 2 ( n = 120), MT was delivered at the end of the course, with out-of-class mindfulness practice conducted in groups. Cognitive and well-being measures were collected before and after the 4-week MT interval, and end-of-course exam scores were examined. MT participants provided trainer and program evaluations. Results While trainer and program satisfaction were high, no consistent MT benefits over TAU emerged. However, in Round 1, participants who engaged in more out-of-class mindfulness practice demonstrated improved attention and higher exam scores. In Round 2, all participants experienced increased mind-wandering and decreased well-being, with MT participants indicating that the program’s delivery during the most demanding course period may have limited its effectiveness. Conclusions This study offers evidence-based insights into key enablers and barriers to the adoption of MT. It establishes a foundational framework for the broader, large-scale implementation of MT across various high-demand professional sectors. Preregistration Clinical Trial Registration # NCT04703296.

Climate anxiety impairs sustained attention: objective evidence of a cognitive cost

Frontiers in Psychology · 2025-10-13 · 1 citations

Introduction: As climate anxiety rises globally, it may influence how individuals cognitively engage with the climate crisis. Although cognitive functioning is a key component of climate anxiety, its association with objectively measurable cognitive performance impairment remains unclear. This study examines whether individual differences in climate anxiety correspond with performance on a task measuring sustained attention. Methods: A total of 182 undergraduate students completed self-report measures of climate anxiety, personal climate change experience, and general anxiety and depression. In addition, they completed the Sustained Attention to Response Task (SART), which measures attentional performance through accuracy and response time variability. Results: = 0.024). Consistent with prior research, climate anxiety also correlated with personal experience of climate change and higher levels of anxiety and depression. However, personal experience with climate change as well as anxiety and depression were not significantly related to SART outcomes. Discussion: Results show that greater climate anxiety is associated with reduced attentional task performance, independent of climate change experience or general psychological distress. Given the central role of attention in decision-making and action-planning, these findings underscore how this cognitive vulnerability may pose a critical barrier to adaptive engagement and effective climate action. The findings also highlight the need for research on approaches to bolster sustained attention as we face growing climate anxiety in a warming world.

Examining cognition in action: laboratory-based attentional control tasks predict performance on combat-relevant tasks in an augmented reality training environment

Frontiers in Psychology · 2025-05-05 · 1 citations

Introduction: There is growing interest in understanding how individual differences in cognitive abilities contribute to military performance. Laboratory-based cognitive tasks, which are well-suited for assessing specific cognitive capacities, offer a controlled and efficient approach for evaluating these differences. If performance on such tasks corresponds with operationally relevant performance, these measures could serve as valuable tools for evaluation, selection, and targeted training interventions to enhance military readiness. Here, we examined associations between performance on laboratory tasks of attentional control and operationally relevant tasks in an augmented reality military training environment. Methods: = 356) completed two laboratory-based tasks of attentional control and a series of operationally relevant drills, requiring attentional control. Results: Soldiers' performance on sustained attention and working memory tasks was positively correlated with their performance on operationally relevant drills. Specifically, in both rounds, individuals with greater sustained attention task accuracy performed better on a Shoot/Do Not Shoot drill. Conclusion: The results indicate that laboratory-based attentional control tasks can serve as useful indicators of performance in military operationally relevant drills. Furthermore, these findings suggest that individual differences in attentional control may influence operationally relevant performance.

Mindfulness Training in Military Settings: Emerging Evidence and Best-Practice Guidance

Current Psychiatry Reports · 2025-06-03 · 9 citations

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Evidence suggests that mindfulness training (MT) may protect and strengthen military service members' attentional control functions, improving their performance and holistic fitness as they face the modern-day battlefield. Yet, implementation challenges must be addressed to realize MT's benefits consistently and at scale. RECENT FINDINGS: Despite heterogeneity in MT program content, evaluation metrics, and participants' military career stages across studies, recent findings suggest that MT may bolster performance, cognitive functions, psychological well-being, and social relationships. Additionally, implementation factors such as daily practice, trainers' familiarity with the military, and course content influence the extent of benefits. Attentional control is critical for effective performance, yet vulnerable to compromise in high-demand cohorts, such as military service members. MT not only targets and strengthens military service members' attentional control but also enhances other aspects of their functioning. Despite recognized hurdles, best practice guidance is emerging and continued research and efforts to implement MT in military settings are warranted.

Examining the association between vigilance and mind wandering

Frontiers in Cognition · 2025-09-01 · 2 citations

There has been a growing interest in the relationship between the vigilance decrement, characterized by performance decline with greater time-on-task, and the occurrence of mind wandering—task-unrelated thought. Recent evidence from a large-scale military sample suggests a link between performance declines and increased mind wandering over a 20-min Sustained Attention to Response Task. Herein, we examined if similar patterns are present when the task duration is shorter and delivered online to college students who rely on sustained attention for academic success. Specifically, we explored the relationship between the vigilance decrement and mind wandering in undergraduates ( N = 310) completing a 10-min Sustained Attention to Response Task embedded with mind wandering probes. Bivariate growth curve modeling was used to examine within-task changes in performance and mind wandering over time-on-task as well as their covariance. The results revealed that a decrease in accuracy and an increase in response time variability were associated with an increase in mind wandering with greater time-on-task. In addition, self-reported task motivation, interest, and difficulty ratings were assessed as potential person-level moderators of changes with time-on-task. The results showed that individuals with higher motivation and interest ratings demonstrated a reduced time-on-task effect on response time variability and mind wandering. These findings suggest that mind wandering contributes to the vigilance decrement, even in shorter-duration tasks. Additionally, higher task-related motivation and interest appear to reduce the performance costs of mind wandering.

The Effect of a Mindfulness Training and Yoga Intervention on Unit Cohesion in the Military

Health Education & Behavior · 2025-07-31

Social cohesion is critical for personnel working on teams in high-stress occupational settings like the military. Building on recent findings, we examined the potential impact of a combined mindfulness training and yoga intervention on cohesion among soldiers in Basic Combat Training. In a group randomized trial, 40 military units ( n = 1,896) were randomly assigned to receive this intervention or training as usual. Surveys were administered at 4 times over 10 weeks. Mixed effects models were used to assess the impact of the intervention on cohesion across four time periods. In addition, the role of embedded individual mindfulness practice was analyzed. Results found that while there was no main effect of the intervention, soldiers who reported engaging in embedded mindfulness practice at least 3 times per week had higher sustained perceptions of cohesion compared to training as usual. Findings suggest mindfulness training and yoga may support unit cohesion in military units.

Mind-wandering increases in frequency over time during task performance: An individual-participant meta-analytic review.

Psychological Bulletin · 2024-02-29 · 39 citations

Attention has a seemingly inevitable tendency to turn inward toward our thoughts. Mind-wandering refers to moments when this inward focus diverts attention away from the current task-at-hand. Mind-wandering is thought to be ubiquitous, having been estimated to occur between 30% and 50% of our waking moments. Yet, it is unclear whether this frequency is similar within-task performance contexts and unknown whether mind-wandering systematically increases with time-on-task for a broad range of tasks. We conducted a systematic literature search and individual participant data meta-analysis of rates of occurrence of mind-wandering during task performance. Our search located 68 research reports providing almost a half-million total responses to experience sampling mind-wandering probes from more than 10,000 unique individuals. Latent growth curve models estimated the initial occurrence of mind-wandering and linear change in mind-wandering over sequential probes for each study sample, and effects were summarized using multivariate meta-analysis. Our results confirm that mind-wandering increases in frequency over time during task performance, implicating mind-wandering in characteristic within-task psychological changes, such as increasing boredom and patterns of worsening behavioral performance with time-on-task. The systematic search and meta-analysis provide the most comprehensive assessment of normative rates of mind-wandering during task performance reported to date. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2025 APA, all rights reserved).

Examining factors associated with self-reported cognitive functioning in elite military settings: considerations of combat experiences and post-traumatic stress symptomology

Scientific Reports · 2024-08-19 · 2 citations

Exposure to traumatic events is associated with post-traumatic stress symptomology (PTSS) in a variety of populations. PTSS is also associated with self-reported everyday cognitive failures, which are acknowledged attentional lapses experienced in one's naturalistic everyday environment. While a growing literature suggests that PTSS is associated with both traumatic events and attentional functions, little is known regarding similar associations in elite military cohorts, such as Special Operations Forces (SOF) personnel. Herein, we investigate if prior combat experience is associated with everyday cognitive failures, while considering the possible mediating role of PTSS. SOF personnel (N = 119) completed self-report questionnaires assessing prior combat experience, PTSS, and everyday cognitive failures. Direct and indirect associations between these metrics were examined using structural equation modeling. Mediation analyses revealed that the correspondence between combat experiences and everyday cognitive failures is mediated by the severity of subclinical levels of PTSS. Such findings suggest that greater attention to subclinical PTSS is warranted due to its significant association with everyday cognitive failures that may contribute to deleterious mission-related failures in high-demand tactical professionals, such as SOF.