About
Benjamin Lok is a Professor and Graduate Program Director in the Computer and Information Science and Engineering (CISE) Department at the University of Florida. He also serves as the Chief Technology Officer of Rovex, Inc. He co-founded Shadow Health, a company that was acquired by Elsevier, and leads the Virtual Experiences Research Group (VERG) at UF. His research focuses on building virtual humans and mixed-reality systems designed to train real-world communication skills, particularly in healthcare settings. As UF's Faculty Lead for the NSF I-Corps Southeast Regional Hub, he plays a key role in fostering innovation and entrepreneurship. Professor Lok has been recognized for his contributions by being inducted into the inaugural IEEE VGTC VR Academy. His research group, VERG, publishes and wins awards at major conferences such as ACM SAP, IEEE VR, ACM IVA, and ACM I3D, emphasizing projects that result in practical tools used by clinicians, learners, and robots rather than just academic papers.
Research topics
- Computer Science
- Psychology
- Political Science
- Human–computer interaction
- Mathematics
- Cognitive psychology
- Medicine
- Economics
- Multimedia
- Internal medicine
- Applied psychology
- Nursing
- Family medicine
- Econometrics
- Microeconomics
- Statistics
- Social psychology
Selected publications
Cancer Research · 2026-04-03
articleSenior authorAbstract Background: Molecular classification of SCLC into subtypes (SCLC-ASCL1, SCLC-NEUROD1, SCLC-POU2F3, and SCLC-Inflamed) has revealed distinct immune contextures; however, preclinical research of the tumor-immune microenvironment is constrained by limited models that poorly capture POU2F3 and inflamed subtypes. To address this, we investigated peripheral blood mononuclear cell (PBMC) humanized mice (hu-mice) as a complement to conventional murine systems to broaden available tumor-immune models. We further characterized SCLC hu-mice for their ability to model therapeutic sensitivity, focusing on a novel triplet regimen, AZD1390 (ATM inhibitor) with radiotherapy (RT) and durvalumab (aPDL1), to investigate how DNA damage repair inhibition plus RT can reshape the immune microenvironment and sensitize SCLC subtypes to aPDL1. Methods: Immunodeficient mice were intravenously injected with human PBMCs and subcutaneously engrafted with a panel of human SCLC cell-lines corresponding to all subtypes. Peripheral and infiltrating immunity were profiled with multiparameter flow cytometry to assess cytokine, exhaustion, and activation of subtype-specific tumour-immune interactions. Tumor infiltration kinetics and antitumor effects were evaluated following durvalumab monotherapy and combination therapy. Results: T cell tumor infiltration varied by subtype with SCLC-Inflamed subtypes exhibiting the highest level of infiltration in an HLA-independent fashion. Infiltrating CD8+ T cells rapidly acquired an exhaustion phenotype upregulating PD1, CD39, TOX and downregulating Ki67, IFNG, and TCF1, consistent with impaired effector function. aPDL1 monotherapy revealed subtype-specific sensitivity of engrafted cell-lines, with tumour control across multiple donors seen only in the SCLC-Inflamed cell-line, SBC5. AZD1390 and RT was selected as a candidate combination with aPDL1 as it stimulated increased chemokine (CCL5, CXCL10) expression via a cGAS-STING-mediated mechanism and increased surface PDL1 expression across multiple cell-lines in vitro. AZD1390 and RT sensitized otherwise non-responsive xenografts to aPDL1 in vivo. Treatment response was associated with higher proportions of CD39+CD103+ tumor-reactive T cells and reduced terminal exhaustion (TCF1-TOX+) suggesting a shift towards a more functional T cell repertoire. Conclusions: Our preclinical observations demonstrate PBMC hu-mice as a viable platform to model intrinsic immune-tumor characteristics of engrafted human SCLC cell-lines. Combinatory radiation therapy enhanced anti-PDL1 efficacy in select models. Future studies will aim to identify response-defining features of treated models to improve patient selection in clinical trials. Citation Format: Bell Wu, Xiaozhuo Ran, Olivia Huang, Lifang Song, Vivek Phillip, Adrian Sacher, Ming Sound Tsao, Benjamin Lok. Small cell lung cancer humanized mouse models identifies unique T cell infiltration immune phenotypes in response to combination immune-radiation therapies [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the American Association for Cancer Research Annual Meeting 2026; Part 1 (Regular Abstracts); 2026 Apr 17-22; San Diego, CA. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2026;86(7 Suppl):Abstract nr 3379.
Lecture notes in educational technology · 2026-01-01
book-chapterSenior authorJournal of Technology in Behavioral Science · 2025-05-15 · 1 citations
articleArXiv.org · 2025-05-19 · 1 citations
preprintOpen accessWe explore the integration of multisensory elements in virtual reality reconstructions of historical spaces through a case study of the Virtual Vauxhall Gardens project. While visual and auditory components have become standard in digital heritage experiences, the addition of olfactory stimuli remains underexplored, despite its powerful connection to memory and emotional engagement. This research investigates how multisensory experiences involving olfaction can be effectively integrated into VR reconstructions of historical spaces to enhance presence and engagement with cultural heritage. In the context of a VR reconstruction of London's eighteenth-century Vauxhall Pleasure Gardens, we developed a networked portable olfactory display capable of synchronizing specific scents with visual and auditory elements at pivotal moments in the virtual experience. Our evaluation methodology assesses both technical implementation and user experience, measuring presence, and usability metrics across diverse participant groups. Our results show that integrating synchronized olfactory stimuli into the VR experience can enhance user engagement and be perceived positively, contributing to a unique and immersive encounter with historical settings. While presence questionnaires indicated a strong sense of auditory presence and control, with other sensory factors rated moderately, user experience of attractiveness was exceptionally high; qualitative feedback suggested heightened sensory awareness and engagement influenced by the inclusion and anticipation of smell. Our results suggest that evaluating multisensory VR heritage experiences requires a nuanced approach, as standard usability metrics may be ill-suited and 'realism' might be less critical than creating an evocative, historically informed, and emotionally resonant experience......
ACM Transactions on Applied Perception · 2025-08-05 · 1 citations
articleSenior authorVirtual health assistants, digital characters designed to guide patients through healthcare interventions, offer scalable solutions, but their effectiveness may depend on user perceptions of realism. This study investigated how the visual fidelity and voice modality of virtual health assistants influence perceived realism, perceived voice naturalness, and intentions to screen for colorectal cancer among Black American adults aged 45–75. In a 2 × 4 factorial between-participants experiment (N = 266), participants were randomized to virtual health assistants varying in visual fidelity and voice modality. Structural equation modeling revealed that voice naturalness had a strong positive effect on perceived realism, which in turn significantly predicted screening intentions. Visual fidelity also contributed directly to perceived realism, although to a lesser extent. These results suggest that enhancing voice naturalness in virtual health assistants may be a critical design priority for improving engagement and promoting preventive health behaviors in digital health interventions.
Journal of Dental Education · 2025-05-06 · 6 citations
articleOBJECTIVES: This pilot study assessed the feasibility of a virtual patient-based learning (VPBL) platform as an educational tool to address insufficient clinical exposure to temporomandibular disorder (TMD) cases in predoctoral dental education. METHODS: The VPBL platform, developed with Articulate Storyline, featured 15 virtual patients (VPs) based on Diagnostic Criteria for TMD. In a two-step study, 40 third- and fourth-year dental students rated the platform's feasibility, acceptability, appropriateness, burden, and usability using standardized Likert-based scales. In Cohort 1, 20 students (65.0% females; 26.9 ± 3.3 years old) evaluated the 15 VPs and provided feedback. Cohort 2-study consisted of adjusting the VPs based on feedback from Cohort 1 and re-piloting the cases on 20 randomly selected 4th-year students (68.4% females; 26.8 ± 1.9 years old). Scores from Cohort 1 and Cohort 2 were compared using independent t-tests; qualitative exit interviews were conducted on all participants. RESULTS: The Cohort 1 study revealed high ratings in acceptability (4.4 ± 0.5, range 1-5), appropriateness (4.4 ± 0.6, range 1-5), feasibility (4.2 ± 0.5, range 1-5), and usability (73.8 ± 15.2, range 0-100), with a minimal burden (the greatest being the difficulty of use, 1.9 ± 0.6, range 0-4). In the Cohort 2 study, the VPBL was adjusted according to feedback, and five additional VPs were created. Compared to the Cohort 1-study, the modified-VPBL obtained significantly higher scores in acceptability (4.8 ± 0.3, p = 0.015), appropriateness (4.7 ± 0.4, p = 0.035), feasibility (4.7 ± 0.4, p = 0.004), usability (83.6 ± 12.9, p = 0.034), and lower scores in difficulty of use (1.5 ± 0.3, p = 0.022). CONCLUSIONS: The VPBL platform demonstrated feasibility as an educational tool for integration into the TMD curriculum for third- and fourth-year dental students. These Phase I data provide scientific validation for more rigorous testing on a broader scale.
Health Psychology · 2025-12-15
articleOpen accessOBJECTIVE: The aim of the current study was to determine whether and how physicians' use of opioid stewardship (OS) strategies and nonopioid, multimodal treatments differed by patient race and prior opioid misuse behaviors for patients with chronic pain. METHOD: Physicians (N = 135) made pain care decisions for eight virtual patients with chronic pain who varied by race (Black, White) and prior opioid misuse behaviors (adherent, misuse). For each patient, physicians indicated their use of OS strategies (agonist medication, urine drug testing, prescription drug monitoring, opioid contract, and naloxone rescue kit) and nonopioid treatments (nonopioid analgesics and nonpharmacological treatments; e.g., cognitive behavioral therapy, acupuncture, and chiropractic), referral to physical therapy, referral to pain specialty clinic, and referral to substance abuse clinic. RESULTS: In terms of patient race, physicians were more likely to use opioid contracts for Black versus White patients and were more likely to refer Black versus White patients to a pain specialty clinic. In terms of patient misuse behaviors, physicians were more likely to implement all OS strategies and were more likely to initiate referrals to pain specialty and substance abuse clinics for patients with prior opioid misuse versus prior adherence. Conversely, physicians were less likely to prescribe nonopioid analgesics and physical therapy for patients with prior opioid misuse versus prior adherence. There were no significant Patient Race × Opioid Misuse interactions. CONCLUSIONS: These results inform future research and interventions to enhance pain equity and improve pain care for patients who are made vulnerable by their racial identities and stigmatized behaviors. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2025 APA, all rights reserved).
Frontiers in Digital Health · 2025-09-10 · 3 citations
articleOpen accessSenior authorIntroduction Emotionally intelligent AI chatbots are increasingly used to support college students’ mental wellbeing. Yet, adoption remains limited, as users often hesitate to open up due to emotional barriers and vulnerability. Improving chatbot design may reduce some barriers, but users still bear the emotional burden of opening up and overcoming vulnerability. This study explores whether perspective-taking can support user disclosure by addressing underlying psychological barriers. Methods In this between-subjects study, 96 students engaged in a brief reflective conversation with an embodied AI chatbot. Perspective-Taking participants defined and imagined a designated other’s perspective and responded from that viewpoint. Control participants provided self-information and responded from their own perspective. Disclosure was measured by quantity (word count) and depth (information, thoughts, and feelings). Additional immediate measures captured readiness, intentions for mental wellbeing, and attitudes toward the chatbot and intervention. Results Perspective-Taking participants disclosed significantly greater quantity, overall depth, thoughts depth, and frequencies of high disclosures of thoughts and information. Both groups showed significant improvements in readiness and intention to address mental wellbeing, with no difference in improvement magnitude. However, Control participants reported significantly lower (better) skepticism towards the intervention and greater increases in willingness to engage with AI chatbots comparatively. Discussion This study highlights how perspective-taking and distancing may facilitate greater disclosure to AI chatbots supporting mental wellbeing. We explore the nature of these disclosures and how perspective-taking may drive readiness and enrich the substance of disclosures. These findings suggest a way for chatbots to evoke deeper reflection and effective support while potentially reducing the need to share sensitive personal self-information directly with generative AI systems.
Virtual Health Assistants in Preventive Cancer Care Communication: Systematic Review
JMIR Cancer · 2025-07-31 · 1 citations
reviewOpen accessBackground: Virtual health assistants (VHAs), interactive digital programs that emulate human communication, are being increasingly used in health care to improve patient education and care and to reduce the burden on health care providers. VHAs have the potential to promote cancer equity through facilitating patient engagement, providing round-the-clock access to information, and reducing language barriers. However, it is unclear to what extent audience-centeredness is being considered in the development of cancer-related applications. Objective: This systematic review identifies and synthesizes strategies used to make VHA-based cancer prevention and screening interventions audience-centered. Methods: Following PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) 2020 guidelines, we searched 4 databases (PubMed, Embase, Web of Science, and EBSCOhost) for peer-reviewed studies on VHA interventions promoting cancer screening (January 2022). Included studies focused on adult populations in primary care settings, with interventions emphasizing interactivity and immediacy (key VHA features). Excluded studies were on cancer treatment, noninteractive decision aids, or technical VHA development. Screening, data extraction, and quality assessment (Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool) were performed independently by multiple reviewers. Thematic synthesis was used to analyze audience-centered strategies. Results: Of 1055 records screened, 17 studies met inclusion criteria. Most (n=11) targeted colorectal cancer, with others addressing prostate, breast, cervical, or lung cancer. A total of 16 studies were US-based; 1 study focused on Uganda. Key strategies for audience-centered design included: (1) Demographic Concordance: Race or gender alignment between VHA and users (eg, African American participants interacting with Black-coded avatars); (2) User Feedback: Iterative testing via interviews, think-aloud protocols, or pilot studies to refine interventions; (3) Preintervention Needs Assessment: Identifying cultural, linguistic, or literacy barriers (eg, myths about screening in Ugandan communities); (4) Theoretical Frameworks: The Health Belief Model (most common), the Modality, Agency, Interactivity, and Navigability (MAIN) model, or tailored messaging theories guided design; (5) Information Customization: Culturally adapted content (eg, Spanish-language interfaces, narratives addressing racial disparities); and (6) Feature Customization: Adjusting VHA appearance (eg, animations and fonts) based on user preferences. Notably, 7/17 studies focused on racially minoritized groups (eg, African Americans, Hispanic farmworkers), addressing systemic barriers like mistrust in health care. However, gaps persisted in intersectional tailoring (eg, rurality and income) and non-English languages (only 2/17 studies). Recruitment methods influenced diversity; community-based strategies yielded more representative samples than solely internet-based recruitment approaches. Conclusions: The systematic review identified the audience-centered development practices currently being used for VHA-based interventions in preventive cancer care. The majority of the studies included processes to diversify and segment the intended audience, focused on medically underrepresented population groups, and implemented strategies to be culturally sensitive to the population of interest. However, opportunities remain to address multidimensional inequities (eg, rural access and low literacy). Future interventions should integrate intersectional frameworks, expand language diversity, and measure social presence to enhance engagement. This review provides a roadmap for developing equity-focused eHealth tools in cancer prevention.
2025-11-10 · 1 citations
articleOpen accessSenior authorCommunication barriers contribute low clinical trial participation, which is crucial in advancing breast cancer treatment. Patient-centered communication and considering user characteristics like health literacy may improve communication about clinical trials. Virtual agent interventions can employ these strategies to improve communication. However, it is unclear how the adoption of these strategies impact trust and use of a virtual agent intervention. Therefore, we conducted a study where 103 breast cancer patients interacted with a web-based, patient-centered virtual agent intervention to learn about clinical trials. Although the virtual agent’s communication strategy alone did not influence perceptions of trust, findings revealed that accounting for participants’ health literacy significantly impacted trust and unveiled a more nuanced understanding of patient-centered communication strategies. This work contributes to the design of virtual agent interventions, highlighting the necessity of incorporating user characteristics like health literacy when developing interventions for breast cancer patients for clinical trial engagement.
Recent grants
NIH · $183k · 2010
HCC-Medium: Mixed Reality Virtual Humans for Training
NSF · $580k · 2008–2013
HCC: Medium: Plug and Train: Mixed Reality Humans for Team Training
NSF · $1.1M · 2012–2018
CAREER: Studying Diversity Issues with Immersive Virtual Humans
NSF · $418k · 2007–2013
Neurological Exams Teaching & Evaluation Using Virtual Patients
NIH · $379k · 2010–2015
Frequent coauthors
- 62 shared
Kiyoshi Kiyokawa
Kennesaw State University
- 62 shared
Victoria Interrante
- 62 shared
Mary C. Whitton
- 53 shared
Mark Billinghurst
University of South Australia
- 52 shared
Anthony Steed
University College London
- 52 shared
Gudrun Klinker
Technical University of Munich
- 52 shared
James H. Swan
Mississippi State University
- 36 shared
Kyle Johnsen
University of Georgia
Labs
Education
- 2002
Ph.D., Computer Science
University of North Carolina
Awards & honors
- Innovator of the Year Award, 2019
- CAREER Award, National Science Foundation, 2007-2012
- IEEE Virtual Reality 2008 Best Paper Award
- IEEE Virtual Reality 2014 Best Paper Honorable Mention
- UF ACM Teacher of the Year 2005-2006
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