About

Alexander Francis is a Professor in the Speech, Language, and Hearing Sciences Department, as well as in Linguistics at Purdue University. His academic training is in linguistics and cognitive psychology, with a primary research focus on speech perception and acoustic phonetics. His work investigates phonetic learning, specifically how perceptual and linguistic experience influence the way listeners attend to speech and speech-like sounds. His research aims to relate behavioral studies on phonetic learning to psychoacoustics and the cognitive neuropsychology of selective attention, audition, and perceptual learning. Professor Francis's research is relevant to understanding how listeners develop native-like perception and production of foreign languages, how individuals with hearing impairments adapt to hearing aids and cochlear implants, and how children acquire native fluency in their first languages. A significant portion of his recent work concentrates on the perception, production, and acquisition of lexical tone contrasts by speakers of tone languages such as Cantonese Chinese, as well as non-tone languages like American English. He is also interested in the interaction between speech perception and speech production skills, and in the development and evaluation of speech technology, particularly speech synthesis. His research combines insights from linguistics, psychoacoustics, and cognitive neuropsychology to better understand speech perception and learning processes.

Research topics

• Psychology
• Audiology
• Computer Science
• Medicine
• Cognitive psychology
• Communication
• Linguistics
• Social psychology
• Internal medicine
• Neuroscience
• Developmental psychology

Selected publications

• Reframing neuroergonomics in an evolutionary and active inference context

  Frontiers in Neuroergonomics · 2026-05-07

  articleOpen access

  Everyday situations, such as feeling nauseous in virtual-reality environments or getting dizzy when reading as a car passenger, reveal how easily our senses can become confused when modern technology disrupts the innate relationship between the physical environment and human sensory systems. Such disruptions expose the vulnerability of the human senses to conflicting input arising in technologically altered environments. Even in the absence of direct sensory conflict, in complex technological settings such as digital factories and modern operating rooms, the convergence of multiple competing stimuli within and across sensory modalities further amplifies sensory load and cognitive strain. The common denominator of all such problems is that our ancient sensory processing and perceptual systems do not fit well with the technological world we have created. This evolutionary mismatch is already significant, but it will become even more critical as mixed reality concepts and advanced digital technologies integrate more deeply into our daily lives. Focusing on sensory mismatch and sensory strain as two significant ramifications of the Anthropocene, we reframe neuroergonomics in an evolutionary and active inference context. Our reframing argues that neuroergonomics must prioritize technology design that respects evolutionarily tuned priors, and should additionally deploy measured epigenetic, gene–culture, and learning-driven interventions as complementary levers to support adaptive change. Thus, we highlight the importance of aligning and grounding neuroergonomic design with the human sensory system according to constraints and affordances defined by human evolutionary history.

  PublisherDOI

• An evolutionary history of human listening: Mismatches between auditory priors and contemporary acoustic environments

  JASA Express Letters · 2026-03-01

  articleOpen access1st authorCorresponding

  Modern soundscapes differ from those in which our auditory systems evolved. We examine the evolutionary history of two aspects of hominin hearing with implications for life in the Anthropocene. First, adaptations facilitating localization of and orientation toward environmental threats and opportunities are now overstimulated. Second, more recent adaptations arose specifically to facilitate engagement with multiple meaningful voices in socially coherent settings, and these systems are equally overmatched but for different reasons. Recognizing the implications of these adaptations and the challenges that they evoke invites a rethinking of listening effort and the design of auditory technologies-not to restore an idealized form of hearing, but to support the adaptive capacities of a system built for a very different acoustic world.

  PublisherDOI

• Understanding speech in “noise” or free energy minimization in the soundscapes of the anthropocene

  Frontiers in Neuroscience · 2025-03-14 · 5 citations

  articleOpen access

  Listening to speech in the presence of irrelevant sounds is ubiquitous in the modern world, but is generally acknowledged to be both effortful and unpleasant. Here we argue that this problem arises largely in circumstances that our human auditory system has not evolved to accommodate. The soundscapes of the Anthropocene are frequently characterized by an overabundance of sound sources, the vast majority of which are functionally irrelevant to a given listener. The problem of listening to speech in such environments must be solved by an auditory system that is not optimized for this task. Building on our previous work linking attention to effortful listening and incorporating an active inference approach, we argue that the answers to these questions have implications not just for the study of human audition. They are also significant for the development and broad awareness of hearing aids and cochlear implants, as well as other auditory technologies such as earbuds, immersive auditory environments, and systems for human-machine interaction.

  PublisherOA PDFDOI

• Neuroergonomics in Digital Operating Rooms: Applying the Two-Competitor Model of Attention to the Surgical Context

  IEEE Transactions on Human-Machine Systems · 2025-09-10 · 1 citations

  articleOpen access

  Due to high workload and often excessive working hours, team members in operating rooms perform surgical procedures under difficult conditions and often without sufficient breaks. Despite this, the team must deal with incomplete information and unexpected distractions. This requires a suitable level of attention and the ability to balance the demands of the task with available cognitive resources. Advances in measurement technology and data analysis in neurotechnology open up new possibilities for the assessment of attention processes. Increasingly complex and demanding surgeries, especially, could benefit from the application of neuroergonomic automated assistants to minimize distraction, stress, and fatigue, and to facilitate interactions between team members. Such assistants could improve performance via monitoring of cognitive and affective states as well as the implementation of suitable interventions strategies. Understanding the impact of distractions on performance, enhancing individuals’ resilience to distractions, and potentially employing artificial assistants to mitigate their effects are critical future goals. In order to support such future developments, a standard taxonomy of attention in the operating theater is needed, as is a broader consensus regarding the nature of distraction. Ideally, such a model would serve as a basis for comparison between studies conducted in different laboratories, and in principle could also be used to bridge the gap between the laboratory and the real scenario. Here, we propose the adoption of a model of attention previously shown to be effective for modeling levels of attention in immersion and describe its application in the surgical context.

  PublisherDOI

• VARIABLE EARBUD OUTPUT ACROSS VARIOUS DEVICES

  Journal of Hearing Science · 2025-10-08

  articleOpen accessSenior author

  Introduction Today, many people are in the habit of listening to music, watching movies, and playing games via headphones or earbuds connected to devices such as cellphones, computers, and iPads, when studying or doing other activities. This study investigated the LAeq output of four different devices connected with two different earbud types. Material and methods A GRAS 45CB Acoustic Test Fixture was used to measure the output of the earbuds. All devices were purchased in a regular store to mimic the natural process and usage of the products. Both earbuds have the same cable length and are of the same design. Results The findings indicated that one earbud brand produced varying output levels when connected to different devices, even when the same volume setting was used. Statistical analysis confirmed that the output differences across devices were significant, as reflected in the results: [<i>F</i>(3) = 805.08, <i>p</i> < 0.001], with a partial <i>R</i><sup>2</sup> of 89.7% for the right ear, and [<i>F</i>(3) = 805.08, <i>p</i> < 0.001], with a partial <i>R</i><sup>2</sup> of 89.7% for the left ear, based on measurements taken at five different volume levels. Likewise, the interactions were also found to be significant in both ears. Furthermore, the discrepancies between the left and right ear outputs for each earbud–device combination were found to be potentially unsafe, raising concerns about auditory risk. Notably, at the 60% volume setting, the sound output from both ears across all tested devices exceeded the exposure limits recommended by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Conclusions Findings showed that one size does not fit all. Findings from this study could help government intervention in headphone/ earbud manufacturing policy and standards and assist long-term users of earbuds to regulate the usage of earbuds.

  PublisherOA PDFDOI

• Poorer subjective hearing is associated with less frequent and more negative social interactions in older adults

  The Journals of Gerontology Series B · 2025-12-16

  articleSenior author

  OBJECTIVES: Hearing loss is one of the most common chronic conditions among U.S. adults, with increasing incidence and severity from middle age onward. Hearing loss is frequently linked to feelings of loneliness and social isolation, especially with advancing age, although the mechanisms underlying these links are not well defined. We examined the associations between subjective hearing and frequency and quality of routine social interactions in a national sample of adults. METHODS: Data were from the second waves of the Midlife in the United States study and the National Study of Daily Experiences. Participants (N = 1,870) rated their hearing compared to peers, reported frequency of contact with friends and family, and were interviewed daily for 8 consecutive days about positive and negative social interactions during each day. RESULTS: Poorer subjective hearing was associated with significantly less frequent social contact, a greater number of arguments and avoided arguments across the 8-day period, and fewer positive interactions. The only evidence of moderation was the association between hearing and the number of arguments; Black (compared to White) participants with poorer hearing had fewer arguments, but otherwise age, sex, and race and ethnicity did not moderate any of the associations between subjective hearing and frequency or quality of social interactions. DISCUSSION: These results support the possibility that impaired hearing may affect the quality of routine social interactions, potentially increasing the risk of social isolation and loneliness.

  PublisherDOI

• Can individual differences in cognitive capacity predict cybersecurity performance?

  Computers & Security · 2025-04-11 · 2 citations

  article
  PublisherDOI

• LumEDA: image luminance based contactless correlates of electrodermal responses

  Physiological Measurement · 2025-02-06 · 3 citations

  articleOpen access

  Abstract Objective . Electrodermal activity (EDA) is a marker of psychophysiological arousal and is usually a measure of the skin conductance which is associated with sweat gland activity. Recent studies have shown that it is possible to estimate the EDA using contactless video based methods. Approach . Sensor EDA signals (SenEDA) and videos of the the palm were recorded simultaneously from over 30 participants under various stimuli (audio, video, cognitive and physiological). The luminance information from the video data was used to track sweat gland activity on the skin surface and extract the contactless signal luminance based EDA (LumEDA). Main results . Comparison of the SenEDA and LumEDA signals showed a high positive correlation between the two as expected. Significance . Under suitable illumination, simple spatial filters can be used to track sweat gland activity which can then be used to estimate signals analogous to the EDA. Such video based methods also facilitate spatio-temporal analysis of EDA correlates over larger areas of the body.

  PublisherDOI

• Defining Cognitive Workload Through Individual Differences in Capacity-Resource Limitations and Cybersecurity Performance

  SSRN Electronic Journal · 2024-01-01

  preprintOpen access
  PublisherDOI

• Does hearing impairment affect gait under realistic conditions?

  The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America · 2024-03-01

  articleSenior author

  Hearing loss is associated with increased risk of falling, but little is known about how hearing impairment might affect mobility. Here, we report preliminary results from an ongoing experimental study investigating dynamic properties of gait while walking with and without impaired hearing. Young- and middle-aged adult participants with self-reported normal hearing completed four walking tasks, 2 indoors, 2 outdoors, each conducted with and without a simulated hearing loss. In the impaired condition, participants wore an insert earplug in one ear combined with binaural, circumaural noise-damping headphones. We quantified gait parameters using data from inertial measurement units (IMUs) affixed to participants’ ankles and waist, allowing participants to walk farther than in typical gait assessments. Parameters included standard gait metrics, such as limb acceleration as well as a novel spatiotemporal index quantifying variability in step patterns. Data have been collected from 13 of 30 projected participants. Analysis will focus on how temporal-spatial gait parameters and variability differ between indoor and outdoor walking with and without hearing impairment. We expect gait parameters to reflect a more variable and potentially less mobile walking strategy in the outdoor condition and with impaired hearing due to increased cognitive load and/or reduced spatial awareness in those conditions.

  PublisherDOI

Recent grants

• NIH Grant R03DC006811

  NIH · $217k · 2008

Frequent coauthors

• Howard C. Nusbaum

  University of Chicago

  25 shared

• Valter Ciocca

  University of British Columbia

  25 shared

• Fernando Llanos

  12 shared

• Olga Dmitrieva

  Purdue University System

  10 shared

• Lian Ma

  Peking University

  9 shared

• Daniel J. Strauß

  Saarland University

  9 shared

• Kimberly M. Fenn

  Michigan State University

  9 shared

• Maria V. Kondaurova

  Google (United States)

  9 shared